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THE TEACHING OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES: PROPOSALS FOR

IMPROVEMENT

LA ENSEÑANZA DE LENGUAS EXTRANJERAS: PROPUESTAS DE

MEJORA

In one way or another, teachers who are dedicated to teaching foreign languages in general, and

English in particular, are aware of the challenges they face when carrying out their work. This

article analyzes some of the main reasons why the teaching of foreign languages should be

revised. Focusing on the specific case of Spain, some possible solutions will be presented in

order to address deficiencies previously detected. In this sense, it is considered that the proposals

analyzed can serve as a reference to address the situation with certain guarantees of success in

terms of contributing strategies and positive solutions. It is important to emphasize that the

present analysis has been carried out after detecting a series of problems. The result aims to be

one of the engines that allows a profound debate. This debate should lead, inexorably, to a

change in methodology, training, design, conception, and, ultimately, in the teaching of foreign

languages in Spain.

Keywords: teaching, foreign languages, Spain, deficiencies, proposals

De una forma u otra, los docentes que se dedican a la enseñanza de lenguas extranjeras en

general, y de la inglesa en particular, son conscientes de los retos a los que se enfrentan a la

hora de desempeñar su trabajo. El presente artículo analiza algunas de las principales razones

por las que la enseñanza de lenguas extranjeras debe ser revisada. Centrándonos en el caso

concreto de España, se presentarán algunas posibles vías de solución con el fin de abordar

deficiencias previamente detectadas. En este sentido, se considera que las propuestas

analizadas pueden servir como referencia para abordar la situación con ciertas garantías de

éxito en lo que a aportar estrategias y soluciones positivas se refiere. Es importante destacar

que el presente análisis se ha llevado a cabo tras detectar una serie de problemas. El resultado

pretende ser uno de los motores que posibilite un profundo debate. Dicho debate debería

conducir, de manera inexorable, a un cambio en la metodología, formación, diseño, concepción

y, en última instancia, en la enseñanza de las lenguas extranjeras en España.

Palabras clave: enseñanza, lenguas extranjeras, España, deficiencias, propuestas

Filomena Fernandes Gonçalves

filomenafernandes@esars.pt

ESARS, Ministerio de Educación, Lisboa, Portugal

ORCID: https://orcid.org/ 0000-0003-1791-1997

144

ABSTRACT

RESUMEN

Francisco Javier Sánchez-Verdejo Pérez

FcoJavier.SVerdejo@uclm.es

Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Ciudad Real, España

ORCID: https://orcid.org/ 0000-0003-1112-5995

Juana María Anguita Acero

juana.anguita@urjc.es

Universidad Rey Juan Carlos, Fuenlabrada, España

ORCID: https://orcid.org/ 0000-0002-8390-857X

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If English Language Teaching (ELT), a

process that must be taken into consideration

is implemented correctly, a foundation of

English skills can be built early on. If done

incorrectly, the likelihood of mixed-level

English students as well as low motivation

towards learning English in secondary and

higher education becomes much higher

(Cameron 2003).

In one way or another, those involved in

the teaching of foreign languages has

experienced or unfortunately, even suffered

at the hands of the failure of foreign language

teaching in Spain. Unfortunately, the desired

goal of oral skills has not been achieved. In

fact, the level of competence reached in oral

skills is below that of its counterpart, written

skills. In a time when you cannot argue the

importance of the English language as a

vehicle for communication, nor the need to

master a third language, we are faced with a

situation that is far from ideal and that

requires immense improvement.

Understanding that one of the basic objectives

should be to progressively develop the

communicative skills of students, and for

students to accomplish things in the same

manner they would in their mother tongue, it

is obvious that we have to ask ourselves what

is not working. Students show a marked

weakness regarding their oral expression.

We need to analyze which aspects are not

being adequately addressed and developed

in our educational system and provide

pertinent solutions to correct this pernicious

status quo in which we find current language

teaching in Spain.

If we propose the question of whether it is

possible to teach oral skills within the

framework of our educational system, the

answer is resounding yes. However, it is

required that these skills are taught the right

way. Many things must change so that the

teaching and learning of oral skills can be

carried out properly. From this premise, we

will go through the areas that have a direct

relationship with language teaching and

where we believe it is necessary to carry out

an exhaustive renovation.

In Spain, the failure of foreign language

teaching and the challenges that need to be

overcome are undeniable, oral testing results

being the immediate proof of this. Our

findings are based on two processes:

a) First, our work revising literature recently

published;

b) Second, our extensive experience as

language teachers over many years and in

many institutions, has allowed us to detect,

analyze and suggest possible strategies and

solutions to the current situation.

This methodology would not be

comprehensive if a change was not triggered

afterwards.

Without doubt, the process of English

Language Teaching (ELT) (in general terms)

for students should be taken very seriously.

The success of this process can directly

influence learning in future years, and this

influence affects both students and teachers.

In one way or another, everyone involved

has experienced or unfortunately, even

suffered at the hands of the failure of foreign

language teaching in Spain.

When understanding that one of the basic

language objectives is learning to

communicate effectively, it becomes obvious

that we have to ask ourselves how we can

improve. To understand how deep each area

of improvement needs to be, we completed a

detailed evaluation, specifically analyzing

the aspects that are not being adequately

addressed and developed in our educational

system, then designing realistic solutions

INTRODUCTION

METHODOLOGY

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that could be implemented to correct the

pernicious status quo in which we find

current language teaching in Spain.

Our evaluation revealed that many things

must change, from day-to-day teaching in the

classroom, to the content and execution of

Teacher Training Programs. We believe that

a thorough rejuvenation is required, and we

have provided our research and suggestions

in the subsequent pages.

1. THE CASE OF SPAIN IN THE

EUROPEAN CONTEXT

A great deal of importance should be placed

on the appropriate method of instruction for

students learning English, i.e. that with a

focus on the main goal of communication

(Roberts 1998; Green 2011; Richards 1998;

Philp, Oliver & Mackey 2008).

When dealing with the evolution of foreign

language teaching that most countries have

followed in the European setting, one sees

how countries that began to incorporate

major changes in their curricula about half a

decade ago, now have students who show a

more than acceptable mastery in second

(especially English) and third languages. In

this group are the Nordic countries (Sweden,

Finland, Denmark and Iceland), as well as,

for clearly political reasons, the countries of

the communist orbit that made up the former

Warsaw Pact, for which the learning of

Russian became a priority. In the countries

of the western block, the introduction of

teaching a second language in Primary

Education, for example, did not occur in a

generalized way until well into the 1980s (in

Spain, it was not until 1990). It was not until

the end of the 1990s that the introduction of a

second compulsory foreign language became

widespread in most European countries.

The late implementation of foreign language

teaching in Spain has also led to an absence

of definition in terms of the curricula, the

implementation of effective methodologies

and, above all, the profile of the teacher.

Consequently, specific qualifications for

training Primary Education specialists in

languages was established in the 70’s, but a

similar qualification was not developed for

Secondary Education. While many

European countries have had lengthy

experience in developing specific programs

and training qualified teachers, Spain is still

in the prehistory of our journey in language

teaching.

Spain’s delay in relation to most other

European countries has also established a

need to expedite the consideration of

variables of greatest incidence for the

effectiveness of programs. Thus, greater

importance is given to the early teaching of

a foreign language without taking into

account an aspect of greater influence, the

profile of the teacher in charge of carrying

out this task.

In some autonomous communities in Spain,

as part of a pilot trial, students at preschool

education (4-5 years old) receive English

lessons from teachers that do not need to be

specialists in that foreign language. This

means that students’ exposure to English is

anticipated. This example, in which students’

characteristics of cognitive development are

not taken into account, reflect the false belief

that the lower the age of students, the lower

level of English knowledge the teacher must

possess. It is the wrong assumption and it

originates through the absence of planning

and design of a broader and more ambitious

program. A program that should be designed

by qualified personnel, and is not the mere

product of admirable desire, coming from the

political establishment willing to teach

English or another foreign language at all

costs.

RESULTS AND

DISCUSSION

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2. STATE OF THE PROBLEMS

The elements that may have an impact on the

conception and implementation of a Teacher

Training Program (see Bartlett 1990;

Freeman 1989,1990; Oxford 2001;

Wallace 1991; Richards 1998, among

others) have been evaluated numerous times.

Within the following pages and throughout

the remainder of this article, we aim to

analyze some of these influential features as

well as the research conducted by the

aforementioned authors.

2.1. NEED TO CARRY OUT A

DETAILED ANALYSIS

As a preliminary stage, needs analysis and

program evaluations should be conducted in

order to detect and identify weaknesses and

strengths in the current system as well as to

come up with possible measures for further

development and improvement. Quality

control will also be significant because as

Schlaeger (2002:6) says: “the desired

creation of a European area of higher

education requires constant support,

supervision and adaptation to continuously

evolving needs”.

As previously mentioned, within the Spanish

educational system the teaching of foreign

languages in general and of oral skills in

particular has clearly yielded unsatisfactory

results. These results precede a belief shared

by many that it is essential to provide the

necessary means to reverse this situation.

However, we must first clearly separate what

we, as teachers, perceive to be a reality

through our experience and the existence of

a negatively perceived reality. In order to

define, in objective terms, what the real

situation is and the actions that we must take

to overcome it, we must carry out a thorough

analysis of the variables of greatest impact

while forming a program that will give the

desired results.

To do this, we have isolated the areas which

have had the greatest impact in the design of

foreign language teaching programs and,

therefore, when changed, will have the

greatest impact in the achievement of positive

results. These include: the distribution of

content throughout the curriculum, the

instrumental and methodological preparation

of teachers, the lack of consideration of

student characteristics, the material and

didactic resources used, and the necessary

involvement of the community.

2.2. LACK OF ADEQUACY OF THE

CURRICULUM

According to Vale and Feunteun (1995),

student’s tasks must be organized in a way

that the relationship between curriculum and

resources can be properly evaluated.

One reason for linguistic incompetence

comes from poor attention to oral skills.

Although there must be a balance between

teaching written and oral skills, the latter are

usually given a symbolic role. Students of

foreign languages must not only acquire the

ability to create meaningful writing through

the application of lexical, morphosyntactic,

and syntactic knowledge but should also

practice this management at a discursive,

oral level. At this point, reading aloud is the

best they can aspire to learn based on written

skills alone.

Though the curriculum itself reflects the

need for this balance, we find that teachers

will only teach what the skills are but not

how to use them. Therefore, the first problem

we face when dealing with the treatment of

oral skills in the curriculum, is that students’

don’t have the opportunity to perform the

necessary interactive practices using

language for communicative purposes.

In the organization of conceptual, procedural

or attitudinal contents within the framework

of oral communication skills, the treatment

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of speaking and understanding skills is too

individual, and it is often forgotten that in real

life the skills appear in an integrated nature

and not in isolation. In a conversation, one

usually speaks and listens simultaneously,

however, in the curriculum there is a

separation of these two skills, which results

in students’ lacking the ability to use these

skills together.

A focus on subject knowledge, rather than a

focus on the act of teaching itself, can help

distinguish the areas of effectiveness for

teachers (Richards 1998). According to

Green (2011), all areas of subject knowledge

interact with one another. Leach and Moon

(1999) consider subject knowledge to be the

understanding a teacher has regarding the

material they will be teaching and they argue

that an evaluation of the confidence of a

teacher in their subject knowledge begins

with pre-existing curricula. Curricula can

include various issues and inconsistencies.

Realistically, these curricula should balance

the areas that support students learning with

school and parent expectation. Pedagogic

knowledge is another important factor of

subject knowledge that involves the way

teachers organize a topic to ensure

comprehensibility to learners (Shulman

1987).

Regarding the nature of the curriculum, it

can generally be concluded that its lack of

adequacy is not the most decisive cause of

these negative results. Rather, it is the

absence of a direct relationship between the

content and the practice that takes place in

the classroom. The instrumental and

methodological preparation of educating

foreign language teachers is what ultimately

determines the effectiveness or

ineffectiveness of the curriculum. It becomes

the necessary link between the object of

teaching and the student. Teacher training,

an aspect that will be addressed later, is the

factor most directly involved in the

formulation of the curriculum and which,

ultimately, determines the effectiveness of

teaching.

Another aspect that negatively affects the

curriculum is the number of students in a

classroom. In a formal teaching environment,

regardless of the characteristics of the

students, the number of students in the

classroom is of crucial importance. It can

determine the effectiveness of the program

(even with other variables involved). The

curriculum for teaching foreign languages in

most autonomous communities in Spain is

advised by regulations to have approximately

20 students. This is exceeded in most of

cases and invalidates the potential success of

correct methodological planning.

Additionally, the curriculum does not

properly accommodate the number of hours

dedicated to teaching a foreign language.

With more global hours at an earlier age,

students will reap the benefits of early

exposure to the language but its current

structure of four hours a week over four years

of compulsory secondary education and three

weekly lessons along two Baccalaureate

courses (approximately, as Spain regulations

change from place to place) is insufficient.

In most cases, educational authorities have

sought to make up for this deficit by

introducing foreign language learning at a

younger age. In order to address this need, the

number of global hours has been increased,

but not by stage or course and continues to

be seriously lacking. The situation worsens

if the majority of this time is devoted solely

to the teaching of written skills, rather than

offering a balance of written and oral skills.

Finally, it is important to mention the

assessment instruments available to the

educational system throughout student’s

education. The level of demand asked of

students is reflected in the different tests and

exams that must be completed throughout

their schooling (tests that in some way, also

influence the methodology itself).

There are numerous tests involved

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throughout students’ schooling but, without

a doubt, the most importance test in

evaluating classroom materials is the

university entrance test, the EVAU/EBAU

(terminology varies according to different

Spanish autonomous communities). This is a

test that, in many cases, is crucial for students

when determining their future university

studies. By the second year of Baccalaureate

the sole objective is the improvement of

skills to succeed on the university language

test. This is an aspect that notably modifies

the methodology used in the classroom, as

there becomes a disproportionate amount of

attention given to written skills (which are

evaluated on the test) and a disinterest in oral

skills (which are not evaluated).

2.3. THE INDIVIDUAL

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE

STUDENTS

The didactic interactions are evident in

classroom environments. The investigations

(Ríos, Bozzo, Marchant & Fernández 2010;

Gallardo & Reyes 2010; Soares, Almedia &

Guisande 2011; Tabera, Álvarez, Hernando

& Rubio 2015) highlight that the behaviour

and attitudes of teachers affects their

relationship (be it positive or negative) with

students.

Emotional Intelligence (term coined by

Salovey and Mayer in 1990 and later

developed by Goleman in 1995) is necessary

in the teaching-learning process. The

evidence gathered by studies carried out in

recent years demonstrates this (Mayer and

Salovey 1997; Salovey, Mayer and Caruso

2002; Parrot 2002; Tamir, Mitchell and

Gross 2008). Though it is not a topic that is

frequently addressed both in initial and in-

service training of teachers, we have seen

that teachers need this training and the

implications it has on education.

We want to mention the monographs in the

following journals, Teacher Trainer (2005),

Anxiety and Stress and Coping (2006),

Psicothema (2006) and Electronic Journal of

Research in Educational Psychology (2008).

The conclusions derived from the various

national and international conferences held

in Spain in recent years are also very

relevant.

The material covered in the I International

Congress of Emotional Intelligence in

Education (Las Palmas de Gran Canaria

2004), the I International Congress on

Emotional Intelligence (Málaga 2007), and

the I National Congress of Emotional

Intelligence (Mérida 2011), show very

interesting facts about the state of research

and the application of Emotional Intelligence

in different educational settings.

As we have seen, the representation of various

types of content in formal education suffers

from inadequate attention to oral skills.

Additionally, the necessary adaptation of the

curriculum to the individual characteristics

of the students as they progress in their

educational life does not take place. An

example of this lack of adequacy is the

teaching of foreign languages in the second

cycle of preschool education and first year of

primary education. These children have just

completed the brain maturation process

(which ends at around five years old,

depending on the individual).

Due to this biological and cognitive

development, exposure to language must

predominate, in order for children to benefit

from the mental processes of structuring

their own language as well as a second one.

Formal instruction, especially of a linguistic

nature, is out of place and subjects children

to a cognitive effort for which they are not

yet equipped to handle.

This exposure to a new language also

requires that the model that children are

presented with is as authentic as possible;

therefore, teachers who are going to be in

contact with children at this stage must have

adequate instrumental knowledge of

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the language. If this is not the case, all the

benefits derived from early exposure to the

language are invalidated.

Another aspect of the curriculum that is not

efficiently dealt with is the need to appeal to

the psychological and emotional

development of adolescent students. For

example, seeking the benefit derived from

their personality types, their curiosity about

new topics (whether of a scientific or

humanistic nature), their tendency to imitate

certain icons or attitudes, and their internal

motivation to achieve an objective

i.e. necessary attention to instrumental

motivation.

Special attention is not paid to the

development of intrinsic motivation as an

instrument that will inevitably contribute to

making teaching more productive. According

to Gardner (1983), motivation is the sum of

the effort to achieve a goal plus the sum of

the necessary attitudes to achieve it.

Therefore, interest is a factor necessary to

foster motivation and is especially important

to the improvement oral skills. It is the key

element that allows interaction to occur in

the communication process. The balance

between attitudes, motives and perceptions

forms a conglomerate on which decisions

must be based, as they have an undoubted

dominance in the development of any

learning.

2.4. INSTRUMENTAL AND

METHODOLOGICAL TEACHER

TRAINING

As Kant said in 1781, “[a]unque todo nuestro

conocimiento empiece con la experiencia, de

ninguna manera significa que se origine de

la experiencia” (Müller & Vera 2015:35). It

is clear that for real learning to exist, it

requires a metacognitive process that requires

knowing the fundamental processes, such as

reasoning, critical analysis, and motivation

These will achieve an optimal result.

Teachers share two main attributes;

perceptions (varying views on the language

teaching process) and input (provided from

previous teaching experience) (Freeman

1990). Freeman defines teachers as

individuals who facilitate the learning

process. This reinforces the fact that teachers

do not have a responsibility to determine the

methods of effective language teaching.

Teachers must focus on equipping students

with the skills needed for everyday life.

In most classrooms and, by extension, for

most students, the teacher is the main and

often the only form of contact with the

language they are learning, especially in the

early stages. Thus, the expertise of the

teacher becomes the key to the presentation,

introduction and further improvement of

students’ linguistic competence.

With this being said, it becomes contradictory

that there are degrees, such as Preschool

Education, Primary Education, or even

English Studies, that specifically perform the

task of teacher training, but do not properly

prepare their students and do not promote the

necessary measures to ensure that their

graduates, who will ultimately become

language teachers, possess adequate

knowledge for the educational stage in which

they are going to practice.

Any control measure that assures us that

students already have the knowledge at the

beginning of the studies, or acquired it

throughout, is irrelevant. Likewise, there is

no corrective measure within the regulated

studies that allows future teachers to acquire

the necessary useful competence to perform

their task as teachers.

As far as the methodological training of

future teachers is concerned, we find

ourselves in a similarly discouraging

situation. The curriculum for the degrees of

Preschool Education or Primary Education is

full of general didactic and methodological

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subjects, but rarely do they contain content

specifically related to the methodology of

teaching foreign languages. Thus, the

subjects of English Language didactics are in

the minority and are at a disadvantage in

relation to those of a general nature. The

panorama for the degrees in English Studies

is not much better.

They offer a catalogue of linguistic and

literary subjects, but there is little room for

methodological ones. However, in a few

universities and degrees, we find that there is

a relatively good effort in preparing students

in the field of foreign language teaching. They

include subjects related to the acquisition of

languages, the methodology of teaching

foreign languages, or even subjects that offer

teaching practices in educational centres.

In short, the curriculum for degrees directly

related to graduates who will eventually

become language teachers has not been

designed for its students to achieve an

adequate command of foreign languages;

nor does it ensure basic knowledge that will

allow the future teacher to professionally

develop in the field of education.

It is important to note that the responsibility

of this unfortunate situation does not fall on

the Faculty, but, instead, on the political

decision-makers. In fact, the reality shows

that a high percentage of foreign languages

teachers are very aware of the lack of

instrumental and methodological training

and try with all means at their disposal to fill

the gaps in their training.

2.5. MATERIAL AND DIDACTIC

RESOURCES

Tasks are another important factor (Ellis

1991). According to Philp et al. (2008), a

well-designed task has positive effects on

student response. They also acknowledge

that using a variety of tasks combined with

the use of different contexts or audiences

will provide students with the opportunity to

apply a wide range of language, both spoken

and written. Teachers must also be aware of

student’s cognitive growth, meaning an

activity should incorporate an element of

malleability to ensure a well-rounded

understanding of content.

At present, almost all of the publishing

companies of textbooks and didactic material

in the field of foreign language teaching offer

teachers the opportunity to obtain materials

perfectly adapted to their needs. In fact, there

is an appreciable improvement between the

materials that were used in classrooms at the

beginning of the 1980s and the ones that

became available to teachers in the second

half of the 1990s.

The proliferation of specific publishers and

the implementation of publishers with vast

experience in the field of language teaching

throughout the world has resulted in a host

of specific materials in our country. We find

variety and quality in textbooks that are used

for organizing and properly sequencing the

contents of a specific curriculum and a wide

variety of materials specifically designed for

the teaching of a particular skill, linguistic or

discursive element, or the didactic use of

new technologies and the Internet.

There are also multiple resources (for

example, manuals) available for

methodological preparation should a teacher

feel they did not receive sufficient education

during their university studies. Additionally,

there are teacher associations that strive to

organize seminars of a pedagogical nature to

bring the most productive methodological

approaches to teachers in practice and in

training.

However, it’s not all positive. For example,

even with the expansive inventory of

resources available, there is still a clear lack

of adequate materials and resources with

regard to certain specific skills, such as

pronunciation as the basis for productive oral

skills or encouraging reading as a key

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element in the development of linguistic

competence.

What is worse is that written texts are given

a disproportionate importance in the

curriculum by making them the first and

almost only form of student contact with the

language. It is perhaps here that we can find

one of the greater causes of inadequacy in the

teaching of oral skills, the fact that the

written word is ubiquitous from first contact

with the foreign language in the classroom.

In the acquisition of your native language,

the ability to understand the orthographic

language (literacy) does not precede the

establishment of phonological competence,

but rather follows it. The learning of a second

language must occur in the same way. It has

been demonstrated that combining

orthographic signs and the sounds of the new

language in the initial stages of language

learning greatly harms the acquisition of the

correct pronunciation and, therefore, the

overall oral skills.

The child receives oral exposure to their

native language for at least six months before

beginning their babbling stage and receives

another six months of exposure before they

begin to pronounce their first words (at

around one year old). It is not until the

approximate age of three, that their attention

is drawn to the grapheme symbols of sounds

and letters. It is not until the culmination of

their cerebral maturation occurs, that we can

say that they have reached an acceptable

ability to associate letter and sound.

If, as most of the materials suggest, we

introduce words from the new language to

a child at the second stage of Preschool

Education, we are doubling the cognitive

effort required (something that the child is

not yet equipped to do). This will ultimately

result in very negative consequences

regarding the learning of oral skills.

2.6. DIGITAL COMPETENCES

The industrial society, heir to the

Enlightenment, began a gradual process of

transformation that would lead us to what we

now understand as a knowledge society

(Drucker 1969). At the same time, scientific

knowledge as the basis of knowledge is

subject to a process of continuous revision,

seeking continuous improvement and greater

adaptability within a framework

characterized by instability and uncertainty

as opposed to permanent syntheses typical of

the industrial society (Willke 1998).

A good example of this is the recent

advances in information and communication

technologies that have permeated all areas of

society. Their continuous progress forces

organizations into a state of continuous

adaptation and causes a permanent need for

training in order to respond to these changes

and stay up-to-date (Kruger 2006).

Likewise, a key factor that has accelerated

our transition into the knowledge society is

the generalization of the Internet, an element

that has revolutionized communication

worldwide (although there is still a gap in

access to information, as noted by Castell

2001). More and more people connect to the

network and, as a result, connect to the rest

of the world.

The computer is no longer the only way to

access this network either. The use of new

devices has resized the time and space of

the information society and caused a kind of

ubiquitous connectivity (Brener 2011).

Information and Communication

Technology (ICT), referring to all the tools

associated globally in the aforementioned

concept: information technology, telematics,

multimedia, telephone, television, etc., make

up the new information society. In fact, all

social networks have been invaded by these

new tools that are now considered essential

if we want to maintain development as a

society and as an individual (Montolío 2011).

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Given these technological and cultural

change, society requires and requests new

instrumental and pedagogical approaches

that can train upcoming generations. This

affects the entire education system.

Education, today and always, is affected by

the reality of the society that surrounds it. As

a process of personal and social development,

it must have the precise context in which it

is found as a reference, and even try to

improve it and transform it. As stated by

Sáez (2010), the educational field should

take into consideration that children who are

growing up today will have to compete in the

work field and develop their lives within a

couple of decades.

Therefore, the educational system should not

remain outside of this process, but rather it

should incorporate it, forming individuals

capable of searching, selecting, processing,

sharing and transforming data into relevant

knowledge in any field (MEC 2013).

Given the potential of ICT, specifically

mobile devices, to facilitate access to

information and create links for learning and

professional development, it is considered

that the future of education will have a close

relationship with digital competences, the

competence of learning to learn and personal

initiative (Siemmens 2006). The nexuses that

link these competences stem from the need

to develop strategies to obtain, elaborate and

share information, as is the case of the

competence learning to learn (Martín 2008).

It is equally important to take advantage of

the accessibility of information available

that fosters ICTs, as well as the knowledge

generated to learn to undertake it (Osorio

2013). ICTs provide a way to build learning

and, at the same time, establish professional

contacts that can lead to entrepreneurship of

both business and social type (Broughton

2009).

The Framework for the Development and

Knowledge of Digital Competence in Europe

(DIGCOMP) is a document prepared by the

European Union in 2013. This framework

was updated by the 2016 European

Framework for Digital Competence of

Citizens (DIGCOMP 2.0) and it has been

used as a conceptual reference for the

development of The National Institute of

Educational Technologies and Teacher

Training (INTEF)’s Common Framework of

Digital Teaching Competence 2017.

The DIGCOMP 2.0 Framework comprises

five areas of digital competence:

• Information and information literacy

• Communication and collaboration

• Creation of digital content

• Security

• Problem resolution

Prado (2017:66) also highlights:

“Contemplar las competencias digitales de

los estudiantes como vector de impacto en el

diseño de la experiencia digital es un

elemento clave para evitar una brecha que

puede no ser percibida inicialmente”.

2.7. THE INVOLVEMENT OF

SOCIETY

Learning is an active social process, which

means that learning occurs when individuals

are actively engaged in social activities

(Vygotsky 1978; Inelmen 2011).

The role played by society is an important

factor, or rather an amalgam of factors, that

is not often recognized. However, the

influence of our surroundings determines, to

a large extent, the activities of a social

nature, and how the learning of a foreign

language will occur.

As far as the teaching of a new language is

concerned, the attitude that a social group

has towards its perceived importance, its

speakers and, its culture, will play a

prominent part in the way that society will

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face its teaching and learning process. The

attitude felt toward this new language can be

found primarily in the educational policies of

national governments or the Spanish

autonomous communities, but also in written

press, cinema, television, radio, or even in

the way families approach the raising of their

children. Due to their perceived distance

from the formulation and implementation of

educational programs, the difficulty of

identifying and evaluating them in a tangible

way, and the idea that these are situations and

ways of acting that cannot be changed, these

factors are often considered to be of low

priority.

The treatment of a foreign language in the

media is very important, since its use, correct

or not, is transferred directly and

immediately to its audience. Given the

influence of audiovisual media, it is essential

that the use of words from other languages

do not reflect an attitude that is too careless

in terms of pronunciation, for example.

This perpetuates a vision that is tremendously

negative. With that being said, the medium

being used to promote the foreign language

must be relaxed in its use as this will help

facilitate the comprehension of the listener.

Sometimes, following this trend, we even go

so far as to advise broadcasters to not be too

correct in the pronunciation of certain proper

names or words so that they can be

recognized by the majority of listeners.

Regarding, in particular, the teaching of oral

skills, the positive aspects emanating from

exposure to the language are determined by

two factors: the quantity and quality of the

input. Thus, the use of the foreign language,

no matter how small it is, must have the

maximum possible quality, in order to

counteract the low level of exposure.

An example that demonstrates the lack of

exposure to a foreign language outside of an

educational setting is Spanish cinema.

Almost all of the foreign films in Spain are

versions that are translated into Spanish.

Only on very rare occasions we can benefit

from two hours of exposure to the language

we are learning while enjoying a good movie.

Fortunately, today, film (subtitled or not)

through video, DVD, the Internet, and

satellite and digital television, has become

extremely accessible. However, it would be

helpful to see a change in social attitude

toward the broadcasting of films in their

original version, which would greatly

contribute to teaching, especially the oral

component.

Context factors play a large role in the

teaching and learning process (Ellis 1997),

thus, the understanding of them is integral

(Richards 1998). Teachers must have the

ability to not only identify these factors but

to work with them. Sociocultural factors of

both the native and target language should

also be taken into consideration and can be

accomplished by integrating these cultural

into specific activities.

We have outlined some of the causes in

which the educational system, in charge of

promoting the teaching of foreign languages,

has not achieved satisfactory results in the

past. Any assessment that is made about the

origin of these causes must be carried out

from starting points that are not based

exclusively on intuition and teaching

experience. They must begin with an

identification and delimitation of the aspects

that impact effectiveness of educational

programs, and serve to analyze, in the most

scientific way, the scope of the innumerable

variables involved.

As Parrilla (2013) suggests, it is necessary to

foster a new teaching identity: pedagogically

competent, able to investigate and reflect on

the practice with other teachers and aware of

the social and moral aspects of their

profession. From this approach some

CONCLUSIONS

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essential elements are derived, for initial and

continuous teacher training. Our goal is to

offer a catalogue of actions in each of the

areas of importance in order to alleviate the

aforementioned deficiencies.

• Adapt the educational centres to the new

demands.

• Include an oral component to university

entrance exams.

• Adapt the curriculum to biological and

cognitive characteristics of the students

(especially regarding early teaching in

foreign languages).

• Make changes in the design, organization

and sequencing of the contents of the

curriculum, as well as in the selection

process of language teachers.

• Promote instrumental interest in learning a

foreign language, positive attitudes and

autonomous learning.

• Create specific qualifications for the training

of language teachers in Preschool, Primary

and Secondary education (compulsory and

post-compulsory).

• Modify the current curriculum in the

degrees directly or indirectly responsible for

teacher training through the introduction of

methodological subjects and a program of

teaching practices.

• Create a program, within the framework of

university education, that allows a stay of no

less than six months in native foreign

countries of the language being learnt.

• Change in the teaching exams through the

inclusion of objective oral and written

evaluation of the candidates and their

methodological training.

• Consistent update and improved continuing

education programs for teachers, firstly,

through the courses taught by the centres

responsible for teacher training, secondly, by

reinforcing the role of the language advisers

of highly recognized prestige, and thirdly, by

utilizing the training courses organized by

universities and teacher associations.

• Provide adequate digital resources to the

educational centres in order to promote on-

line teaching.

• Introduce new texts and didactic materials

suitable for the different educational stages.

• Formalize agreements with radio and

television stations to promote language

preparation and to encourage the broadcasting

of films in their original version.

• Create specific language courses aimed at

parents and conducted through public

education.

• Formalize agreements with institutions and

associations (national and foreign) for the

dissemination of the language and culture of

other countries.

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